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Italy is a peninsula that juts out from Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. Human settlement in Italy can be traced as far back as 10,000 BC. Archaeological evidence from the period is primarily made up of microlithic tools. With the dawn of the Neolithic period, people began to gain an understanding of their environment and the materials available to them, and they developed techniques of pottery-making. For much of the early part of Italy’s Neolithic period, progression and settlement differentiation and development is indicated by changes in pottery styles and decoration. There is also variation and progression in tool styles, and subsistence patterns.

By 3,000 BC, Italy had entered into the Bronze Age. This period of time, and the brief Copper Age which preceded it, marks a new era of technology. People began to make stronger tools out of metal, as well as jewelry and art.

The tenth century BC marks the beginning of the Iron Age in Italy. Bronze was replaced by iron, a heavier and stronger metal. This was also a time of heavy population growth, the expansion of territories, and increasing hostility between people, as well as the very first hints of the birth of Classical culture. In the late Iron Age, strong communities including the Etruscans and Sabines began to appear and slowly merge. The settlements grew, and by the 6th century BC, a true urban settlement had appeared.

The recorded history of Rome is traditionally divided up into 3 periods: the Monarchy (753 BC-509 BC), the Republic (508 BC-29 BC), and the Imperial Period (27 BC-565 AD).

The Monarchy traditionally began in 753 BC. The date is not based on fact, but legend holds that Rome was founded on April 21st in that year by the mythical Romulus. There is record of 7 kings of Rome during this period; Romulus ruled from 753-715 BC, followed by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine; Tullus Hostilius, a Latin; Ancus Marcius, another Sabine; Tarquin I, an Etruscan; Servius Tullius, Roman or Latin; and Tarquin II, an Etruscan. This rule lasted until 509 BC, when Tarquin II fell out of power and the Roman republic was founded.

The beginning of the Roman republic is marked by the Treaty between Rome and Carthage in 508 BC. The Republic lasted nearly 500 years, during which time the Punic wars were fought, Caesar invaded Britain, the Julian calendar was introduced, and Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. The Republic came to an end in 29 BC, when Octavian triumphed over Illyricum, Actium, and Egypt.

In 27 BC, Octavian assumed the title Augustus and so began the Imperial Period, which would last until the death of Justinian in 565 AD. Some of the major events of this period include: the Great Fire (through which Nero is said to have fiddled) in 64 AD; the eruption of Vesuvius, destroying Pompei and Herculaneum, in 79 AD; the inauguration of the Colosseum in 80 AD; the construction of Hadrian’s wall in Northern England 121 AD; and the legalization of Christianity by Constantine. This period was a time of great change and great conflict. Towards the end, Rome’s hold on its great empire began to weaken. The establishment of the Tetrarchy, or 4 kings, in 293 AD is the first recognizable sign of weakness by the government. As the empire spread, it became more difficult to rule. In 410 AD, the reign of Roman Britain came to an end. For the next 150 years, the empire crumbled, and in 565 AD, the Emporer Justinian died, signaling the end of the Roman empire.

The Roman Empire was one of the largest and most stable empires in the entire ancient world. The recorded history of Rome is traditionally divided up into 3 periods: the Monarchy (753 BC-509 BC), the Republic (508 BC-29 BC), and the Imperial Period (27 BC-565 AD).

The Monarchy traditionally began in 753 BC. The date is not based on fact, but legend holds that Rome was founded on April 21st in that year by the mythical Romulus. There is record of 7 kings of Rome during this period; Romulus ruled from 753-715 BC, followed by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine; Tullus Hostilius, a Latin; Ancus Marcius, another Sabine; Tarquin I, an Etruscan; Servius Tullius, Roman or Latin; and Tarquin II, an Etruscan. This rule lasted until 509 BC, when Tarquin II fell out of power and the Roman republic was founded.

The beginning of the Roman republic is marked by the Treaty between Rome and Carthage in 508 BC. The Republic lasted nearly 500 years, during which time the Punic wars were fought, Caesar invaded Britain, the Julian calendar was introduced, and Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. The Republic came to an end in 29 BC, when Octavian triumphed over Illyricum, Actium, and Egypt.

In 27 BC, Octavian assumed the title Augustus and so began the Imperial Period, which would last until the death of Justinian in 565 AD. Some of the major events of this period include: the Great Fire (through which Nero is said to have fiddled) in 64 AD; the eruption of Vesuvius, destroying Pompei and Herculaneum, in 79 AD; the inauguration of the Colosseum in 80 AD; the construction of Hadrian’s wall in Northern England 121 AD; and the legalization of Christianity by Constantine. This period was a time of great change and great conflict. Towards the end, Rome’s hold on its great empire began to weaken. The establishment of the Tetrarchy, or 4 kings, in 293 AD is the first recognizable sign of weakness by the government. As the empire spread, it became more difficult to rule. In 410 AD, the reign of Roman Britain came to an end. For the next 150 years, the empire crumbled, and in 565 AD, the Emporer Justinian died, signaling the end of the Roman empire.

The term "villa" has come into general use to describe many types of Roman houses. Villas could range in size from small farmhouses to mansions, different from regular farmsteads because of the distinguishing Romanized architecture. Many had decorative columns of stone.

Villa Strombolli is considered to be a "villa rustica", or rustic house, beaches it was a farmstead built on the edge of town in order to farm nearby land. Villa rustica became popular during the middle and late Republic (250-29 BC). These were slightly more complex than the average farmstead; they were attached to an estate and designed as more of a place for the owner to use when he visited that as a place of permanent residence. Villa rusticas were built around a central courtyard with a colonnaded portico. Many had attached stables and out buildings for cooking and storage. Villas continued to develop during the empire. They were often associated with a level of wealth or luxury as they usually belonged to a successful farm.

Roman villas usually possessed stone foundations, often tiled with limestone and decorated with marble. One of the most colorful and favorite marble used was Santa Rosa red marble from the south of Italy.

Roman villas also had smaller and more less complex out buildings used as kitchens, stables, or servant's quarters for slaves or peasants.

In later times, graves became more public and the architecture surrounding the dead served as spots for funerals and ancestor worship. People were often buried in chamber or cyst tombs, or sometimes in stone lined graves. Families might have private burial grounds for personal use.

In some cases, there may have been a small stele, altar, or shrine to honor the dead and the god to which the individuals wished to pay homage. Roman tombs were of various sorts. Sometimes small graves outlined in rock surrounded the stele or altar.

More elaborate tombs, called Necropoli, had entrances and elaborate painted walls. These Necropoli usually held the remains of special personages such as kings or nobles, or would house entire generations of a large family.

The main industry throughout the Roman period was farming, whether by entire villages or individual landowners. Buildings on the farm had many purposes, including use as barns, stables, pigsties, and granaries. Another feature common to farms, especially on villa estates, is a threshing floor, used for the processing of grain.

Crops included anything from cereals to olives, depending on where the farm was located and what the soil was suited for. Fruits and vegetables were grown, with legumes (peas, beans, etc.) being very popular for both human and animal consumption. Fields were usually surrounded by ditches, fences, walls, or hedges.

Cattle were the most important and the most popular stock found on the Roman farm. They produced milk, butter, cheese, and meat. The Romans also used their hides, as well as bone and horns in the production of artifacts (small carved figures, jewelry, etc.), glue, and size. Sheep were raised for their wool and hides for parchment, and goats as well, although, they were less popular. Other animals included pigs, donkeys, and oxen were kept for pulling and carrying.

Neolithic life was sedentary and very simple. Families and small groups of people were giving up their nomadic and mobile lifestyle of earlier times, and beginning to settle down and live in one spot. Small villages and farms sprang up all over the countryside. Farmers cleared small portions of their land to support small garden plots. They retained many of traditional lifeways, particularly hunting wild animals for protein. The most common animals include deer and rabbit. They also fished, and ate many wild plants and seeds.

The Neolithic house was very basic in design. It was a round thatched structure with a dirt floor. It was used primarily for sleeping and eating. Most cooking and other activities were undertaken outside. Archaeological remains of Neolithic houses include a small round dirt house floor covered with stone artifacts. Post mounds are visible along the exterior of the house floor.

Early burial practice in Europe often involved the arrangement of large rocks into a wedge tomb, or dolmen, formation. This arrangement of rocks symbolized a cave, the traditional doorway to the other world or after life.

Early settlers in Italy relied on their surroundings for food. They hunted small animals, including hares, birds, and deer, as well as fish when available. They also gathered food from the environment; berries, nuts, and wild fruit made up of a good part of their diet.

The Etruscan Period represents a phase marked by increased social complexity among the peoples of central Italy. Etruscan lifestyle was relatively simple and was focused around agrarian food production.

Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin I) served as the 5th Etruscan king of Rome from 616-579 BC. The seven kings: Romulus, Numa, Panpilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquin, Servius Tullius, and Tarquin II, ruled as part of the monarchy from 753-509 BC, when the last king was expelled and the Republic was founded.

Etruscan houses were usually round in shape in the north of Italy. Few Etruscan houses have ever been excavated, so much of our information comes from Etruscan funerary urns that served as miniature models of homes designed to hold ashes. From the few house foundations that have been excavated, we know that they were larger and more permanent than Neolithic houses.

Etruscan houses possessed stone foundations, often tiled with blue or yellow plaster, and had wooden posts sunken into the ground to support the wood and thatch roof and walls. They would often have a sunken cooking pit inside the house.

Many different types of tombs are found throughout Etruscan settlements. Beehive tombs (tholoi), or corbelled domes, are common in the north. Beehive tombs were great mounds of rock or brick, arranged to look like a beehive and included a door through which people could enter. This style of tomb remained popular until about 400 BC.

Burial goods changed over time. Early burials were simple; if any goods were included, they would be small animals or simple material items. Later graves included jewelry, pottery, and food offerings. Sometimes a gold coin was placed in the dead person's mouth as a fee for Charon, the ferryman of the dead. Sometimes the dead were cremated, and their remains were buried in elaborate funerary urns.

Sometimes Beehive tombs contained metal or ceramic sarcophagi or funerary urns. Many burials were cremated, an early adoption of the Greek practice to routinely cremate the dead.

The Etruscans are considered responsible for the intensification of domestic farming. Crops included vegetables and grains. Crop yields were exceptionally high in some areas due to clearing and draining marsh land. They also relied on smaller animals, such as pigs and sheep. The natural resources were still considered important; small animals were still hunted and wild forest products were gathered.

The Medieval Period began after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Land became feudal. That is, it was owned by a select few (the nobility) but was worked by peasants. Like the earlier periods, Medieval peasants spent most of their time farming the land. They retained many of their Roman lifeways, including the use of iron.

Medieval farm houses were not often as stylish or complex as Roman villas. They were usually square in shape and constructed out of fired brick. Bricks were cheaper that quarried limestone or marble. Many medieval farms were only a single structure. This house was two stories, had a small internal court, and served as both a barn on the first floor and residence for the farmers upstairs.

Medieval burials in central Italy were usually placed together in large necropoli or catacombs. These catacombs were placed under the city. With the almost total acceptance of Christianity, any rustic burials would be accompanied with a headstone marked with the sign of the Christian cross.

Similar to the Roman Period, the main industry throughout the Medieval Period was farming,

When archaeologists excavate they collect all sorts of various materials used by ancient peoples. These things fall into a class of objects called material culture. Material culture are things all the result of human modification or use. Archaeologists are interested in material culture because it tells them about ancient peoples and how they behaived. These things may also be used to define ancient people to a specific place and time in the past. Thus it is with great enthusiasm that archaeologists collect, clean, identify, and sort these materials in order to get a better understanding of past activities. Material culture is broken down into four major categories: (1) artifacts, portable objects manufactured and used by an individual, (2) ecofacts, nonartifical organic and environmental remains that are by products of human activity, (3) features, non-portable human remains such as pits, hearths, burials, or occupation floors, and (4) structures, free-standing architecture such as stone walls and buildings.

As you excavate you will also reveal another important type of data along with the material culture you discover. This is called the provenience of your finds. Provenience is the immediate surroundings and context of an artifact or feature. Provenience includes the soil or sediment surrounding an artifact in the ground, and (2) its horizontal and vertical positioning.

The soil color, quality, and particle size reveal vital information about when these artifacts were discarded and how they came be abandoned. For example, if the soil is dark in color, this usually means that large quantities of organic material is present. This usually means that discarded food material and charcoal have decomposed in the soil and made it turn black in color. If the soil is yellow or red, this usually means that no organic material is present.

Positioning is also important because it provides clues that help you determine the age and use of material culture. By documenting and mapping the locations of things, their spatial positions can be used to determine what they were used for or how old they are. For example, if you find domestic pottery and cooking utensils near a hearth, its a good guess that the fire pit was used for cooking. There are two general laws of provenience that we follow. The law of Association says that two things found in proximity to one another are of similar function and age. The law of Superposition states that the deeper in the ground that you find something, the older it generally is. Those things found closer to the surface are not as old while those things found deeper in the earth are older. The benefit of provenience is that it can allow you to create a relative sequence of events or of cultures; with the lower one being earlier.

Each artifact is collected and then examined in order to obtain clues as to its age and function. Artifacts include the tools, pottery, jewelry, and other personal equipment. These items are often found fragmented or broken because either they were broken and discarded by its user, or they did not survive the years completely intact.

One of the most common tools found at Villa Strombolli are metal. Tools are essential for a variety of domestic work, including food processing and preparation, wood manufacturing, and hide manufacturing.

The Neolithic peoples of Italy manufactured many of their tools out of stone. Stone and flint tool assemblage are found in the Mediterranean area up through around 3000 BC. These appear in the form of axes, blades, points, and daggers.

After the rise of metallurgy, bronze became the most common material used for manufacturing knives. Bronze blades were more durable than stone knives, and so be used longer. The Bronze age began in Europe about 3000 BC. Many things, such as daggers, knives, axes, razors, and sickles, have been found made out of bronze. This period is very significant, as this indicates the transition from stone working to metallurgy, a practice which would remain important for centuries to come, and a great technological advancement. The control of metal allowed for the production of bigger and stronger tools. This period lasted until approximately 1000 BC.

Crescent-shaped knives began to appear after 1000 BC. This change indicates further technological advancement as well as a change in economic focus. Iron tools were stronger, larger, and sharper than bronze knives. Many of these crescent knives were manufactured by the Romans.

Early pottery in Italy was very plain. Neolithic peoples began to use pottery around 3000 BC. The first pottery designs were simple-small bowls and drinking vessels, either in red ochre or buff monochrome or at times a red painted band or flame motif (often done with red ochre paint).

With the Bronze Age and early Iron Age came more complicated designs and painting. Vessels were still bowls and drinking vessels, although they were now decorated with geometric and linear designs that were "incised" with a tool. This is call incised pottery.

From 700-525 BC, the Etruscans produced a type of pottery called Bucchero ware. This pottery, usually black paint placed upon a gray or buff background, possessed a glossy surface. Stamped decoration was introduced around 600 BC. Designs included animals and hunting scenes.

Ceramic vessels were used throughout the Roman world. The most common type of ceramics were Coarsewares. Coarsewares were generally made locally by hand for use in the home. Styles of coarse ware varied through out the empire, but usually consisted of plain, unglazed earthenware, with varying color depending on origin of clay and firing methods. This type of pottery changed little in design over time.

Specialized pottery was usually much more elaborate than coarseware. One very popular type was Terra Sigilata, or red-gloss pottery, usually red in color with a glossy surface. The types of vessels made in this style include cups, jugs, and tableware. Terra Sigilata was wheel or mold made. Potter’s stamps or incised depicts of people or animals can often be found on the inside of these vessels. Terra Sigilata pottery shows a change in stamps, decoration, form, and material depending on where it was produced.

Medieval pottery was of various qualities. Peasants reverted back to the use simple ochre red pottery, but also used wood and metal storage vessels. Nobles had a variety of expensively decorated pots, including pottery with green-gloss.

Jewelry has been used as personal adornment almost since the dawn of humankind. The earliest jewelry was made of bone or antler and was generally very simple. These were manufactured by various Stone Age and Neolithic peoples from the bones of the animals they hunted.

Metal jewelry caught on in the Copper and Bronze Ages (c. 4,000-3,000 BC). Metal rings, pendants, necklaces and other fine pieces could be manufactured now with intricate detail. Bronze was the most common metal used, because of its color, availability, and durability, One of the more famous Etruscan jewelry types was the bronze pendant, shaped or carved in geometric. Other jewelry types include beads, bracelets, pendants, brooches, earrings, rings, and hairpins.

Jewelry may sometimes be an indicator of status. People were often buried with their jewelry, either as a form of protection or as a way to pacify the restless spirits. Wealthy people were commonly buried with gold ad silver jewelry. Commoners and farmers tried to used the same designs, but used more common material such as bone, wood, glass, and clay.

By the Roman era people used a variety of materials to make their jewelry, but preferred gold. They were often marked with Latin characters. When Christianity becoming the dominant religion, items of personal adornment took on the shape of Christian symbols such as the cross.

The production of coins began in the Iron Age. The first Europeans coins were manufactured in Greece in the 7th century BC. Coins are very handy because then can be easily dated. Greek coins were originally made of silver. Many Greek coins made their way to Italy as trade items, while local imitations were manufactured out of bronze. Many local coins were imprinted with Etruscan designs, the most common being an image of a poised lion.

In 289 BC, the tresviri monetales known as an "as," appeared in Rome and replaced the bronze bar which had been in use up to this point. In the early 3rd century BC, struck silver coins denari appeared, and by the late 3rd century BC, the bronze as had been reduced in weight and size. In 100 BC, one silver denari was equivalent to 16 bronze asses. The as eventually fell in value so greatly that it was not used from the early 1st century BC until Augustus came into power in 27 BC. Gold coins came into use around 220 BC.

One of the most famous Roman Emperors was Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Gemanicus. He commissioned a variety of coins with his personage. Nero was born at Antium on December 15th, 37 AD. Nero was heir-apparent from 50 AD, and he became emperor on October 13th, 54 AD. He ruled until his suicide on June 9th, 68 AD.

Cows were important for both farming purposes and for food. With the growth in farming, they were used as work animals, as well as for cheese, milk, meat, hides, bone, and horn.

Pigs were an important small domestic animal. Pork and ham were popular foods in ancient Rome.

Next to cattle, sheep were the most important domestic resource. They were used mainly for wool, but also produced milk, cheese, and meat. Goats were used for similar purposes.

Deer was an important wild resource. Small enough to be easily hunted, deer could also provide a substantial amount of meat and a good hide.

Cereals (grains), vegetables, and fruit all became popular foods on early Etruscan and Roman farms.

Wild resources have always been used, but their importance decreased with the advancement of farming. Common wild resources include berries, nuts, fruit, and wild grain.

Charcoal is a byproduct of wood burning, and therefore represent ecofacts. The more charcoal found, the more burning activity was present. Charcoal is also ideal for use as samples for radiocarbon dating.

Charcoal is used for radiocarbon dating .

Features are non-portable things such as post molds (like the one shown here), a hearth. or an occupation floor used by more than one individuals. Features are especially visible in a stratigraphic profile.

Features also include architectural structures, which are freestanding building such as houses, temples, and granaries. Features are usually used by groups of individuals such as families.